The Mughal Administrative System, which governed the empire from the 16th to the 18th centuries, was a sophisticated, highly centralized bureaucracy, primarily instituted and developed during the reign of Emperor Akbar. The system synthesized military and civil authority, serving as a framework that facilitated vast expansion and economic organization.
I. Nature and Structure of the Mughal State
The Mughal administration evolved from foundational principles that differed from the Delhi Sultanate, building significantly on the administrative measures introduced by Sher Shah Suri.
- Centralized Authority: The Mughal government was a highly centralized bureaucracy, and the emperor’s word was considered law.
- Monarchical Ideology: The state ideology, articulated by Abul Fazl, conceptualized the king as the representative of God on earth (Zill-i-Ilahi) and possessing divine radiance (Farr-i-Izadi). The Badshah (meaning “established owner”) was the ultimate authority in all social, economic, political, and judicial matters.
- Foundation of Service: All officers derived their power and position from the Emperor, and their appointment, promotion, or termination was subject to the ruler’s personal preference. The executive and military functions were combined in a single service.
- Checks and Balances: To prevent any single officer from accumulating autocratic power, the system utilized a rigorous arrangement of checks and balances among the various ministries.
II. Central Administrative Ministries and Officials
The central government was organized into four main ministries, functioning immediately below the Emperor.
| Office/Ministry | Official Title | Primary Responsibilities |
|---|---|---|
| Finance/Revenue | Diwan-i-Kul or Diwan-i-Ala | Responsible for controlling revenues, calculating tax income, and distributing assignments. Supervised the imperial treasury and oversaw Khalisa (Crown), Jagir, and Inam lands. He maintained direct contact with provincial diwans. |
| Military/Army | Mir Bakhshi | Head of the military organization, paymaster-general, and administrator of the mansabdari system. He was considered the head of the nobility. He personally supervised the dagh (branding of horses) and maintained the chehra (muster roll of soldiers). |
| Imperial Household | Mir Saman (or Khan Saman) | Charged with managing the imperial household and public works. Responsible for the purchase, storage, and manufacture of all articles for the royal household in royal workshops (karkhanas). |
| Religious/Judicial Patronage | Sadr-us-Sudur | Head of the ecclesiastical department, ensuring observance of Shariat law. Managed charities (cash wazifa and land grants like suyurghal) and stipends. |
III. The Mansabdari and Jagirdari Systems
The dual systems of Mansabdari and Jagirdari formed the backbone of the Mughal structure, integrating civil administration and military service.
A. The Mansabdari System
The Mansabdari system, modified by Akbar in 1567, was a grading system (Mansab meaning rank/position) determining an individual’s rank, status, salary, and military duties.
- Dual Rank (Zat and Sawar): Akbar introduced a dual-rank system around 1595–96.
- Zat: Determined the officer’s personal status and salary.
- Sawar: Stipulated the number of cavalrymen or horsemen the officer was required to maintain.
- Organization and Discipline: The system mandated the maintenance of a descriptive roll (chehra) for soldiers and the branding of horses (dagh) to ensure the quality of the contingent provided. The system discouraged caste-based discrimination by requiring officers to appoint soldiers from all castes and religions.
- Heredity and Merit: The Mansabdari rank was not hereditary. Individuals were usually appointed at a low rank and gradually promoted based on merit and the emperor’s favor.
B. The Jagirdari System
This system was integral to the Mansabdari structure.
- Revenue Assignment: Mansabdars were primarily paid through the assignment of land revenue of a territory (Jagir) in lieu of a cash salary, making them Jagirdars. It mirrored the earlier Iqta system of the Delhi Sultanate.
- Fiscal Arrangement: The Jagir assignment provided only the right to collect revenue, not the ownership of the land itself. The assignment was calculated based on the Zat and Sawar ranks.
- Non-Hereditary Nature: Jagirs were generally transferable, meaning the Emperor could shift the assignment to prevent Jagirdars from developing local roots, although some were hereditary (like Watan Jagirs assigned to Rajput rulers in their homelands).
- The Jagirdari Crisis: During the later reign of Aurangzeb, a rise in the number of mansabdars led to a severe shortage of available Jagirs (paibaqi land), contributing to administrative inefficiency and the decline of the imperial administrative system.
IV. Land Revenue Administration (The Agrarian System)
The agrarian economy provided the bulk of the imperial revenue.
- Zabt or Dahsala System: This standardized system was implemented during Akbar’s reign in 1580–82 by his finance minister, Raja Todarmal.
- Calculation Basis: The system determined land revenue based on the average produce and average prices of various crops prevailing over the previous ten years (Dahsala meaning ten years).
- State Share: The state claimed one-third of the average produce as its share (Mal).
- Payment and Standardization: Revenue was fixed in cash (Rupees per Bigha). Revenue rates for various crops were documented in a schedule known as Dastur-i-amal, established for regional revenue circles (dastur).
- Documentation: Farmers were given a patta (title deed/land holding deed) and signed a qubuliyat (deed of agreement to pay dues).
- Other Methods: Other common assessment methods included Batai or Ghalla-bakhshi (crop-sharing) and Kankut (estimation of standing crops).
- Impact: The system standardized revenue collection, reduced arbitrariness, and encouraged the commercialization of the economy by requiring payments in cash.
V. Provincial and Local Administration
The Mughal Empire was systematically divided into administrative units, structured as a miniature version of the central government.
- Subah (Province): Initially divided into twelve Subahs by Akbar, each led by a Subedar (governor) who was responsible for law, order, and welfare. Critically, the Provincial Diwan and Bakhshi were appointed directly by the Emperor to manage finances and military affairs, reporting to their respective central ministry, thus ensuring checks on the Subedar’s power.
- Sarkar (District): Subahs were divided into Sarkars. The chief officials were the Faujdar (executive head, responsible for law and order, and suppressing rebellions) and the Amalguzar (revenue assessor and supervisor).
- Pargana (Sub-District): Sarkars were subdivided into Parganas. These units were administered by a Shiqqdar (executive/military) and an Amil/Munsif (revenue/judicial).
- Village (Mauza): The basic and smallest administrative unit. Administration was generally carried out by local, hereditary officials such as the Muqaddam (headman) and Patwari (village record-keeper), with little direct imperial interference as long as revenue was paid.
- Urban/Port Administration:
- Kotwal: Chief police officer in charge of urban centers, maintaining records of inhabitants, regulating weights and measures, and ensuring public order.
- Qiladar: The officer in charge of a strategic fort (quila).
- Mutasaddi: Governor of port towns, directly appointed by the Emperor, who collected taxes and customs duties and supervised the mint.
VI. Judicial and Legal Framework
The legal system blended Islamic jurisprudence with imperial administrative practice.
Censors of Morals: Muhtasibs acted as censors of public morals, enforcing religious and moral observance, and performing secular duties like checking weights and measures and enforcing fair prices.
Islamic Law: The empire employed fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence) and generally followed the Sunni Hanafi system. Aurangzeb commissioned the Al-Fatawa al-‘Alamgiriyya to serve as a central legal reference tailored for the South Asian context.
Judicial Officers: The Chief Qazi (qazi-ul quzzat) was the head of the judiciary, administering the shariat law. Judges (Qadis) were appointed at various administrative levels (pargana, suba, etc.).
Sources of Justice: The dispensation of justice relied on Islamic law, administrative rules, local customs, and political convenience. The Emperor served as the supreme authority and court of final appeal. Jahangir famously installed a “chain of justice” in Agra Fort to allow aggrieved subjects direct access to the Emperor.