Development of Art and Architecture
I. Mughal Art and Architecture: Foundational Style
A. Synthesis and Origin
- Mughal art and architecture is a distinctive Indo-Islamic-Persian style that flourished on the Indian subcontinent during the Mughal Empire (1526–1857).
- This style emerged from a combination of older Islamic and Persian art elements introduced during the Delhi Sultanate (1192–1398), fused with indigenous Indian elements.
- The architecture blends Persian, Turkish, and Indian elements. The use of Hindu architectural elements was especially prolific during the reign of Akbar.
B. Key Architectural Characteristics
- Mughal monuments typically feature large bulbous domes, slender turrets/minarets at the corners, massive halls, and large vaulted gateways.
- Key materials were primarily red sandstone and white marble. During Akbar’s time, red sandstone inlaid with white marble was prominent. Later, Shah Jahan shifted decisively to white marble.
- A distinctive feature of Mughal architecture was the development of beautiful gardens, notably the Persian Charbagh style (quadrilateral layout with the building at the center), surrounding tombs and buildings.
- Decoration often included geometric and floral designs, along with elaborate Arabic/Persian calligraphy.
- A decorative technique called Pietra-dura (parchin kari)—inlaid stonework using cut and polished semi-precious stones—became widely used, especially starting in the Jahangir era.
II. Architectural Development under Successive Mughal Rulers
- Babur (1526–1530): Primarily known for introducing the formal Persian chahar bagh (garden) layout. Remaining structures include the Kabuli Bagh Mosque at Panipat and Jama Masjid at Sambhal.
- Humayun: Though construction was limited, Humayun’s Tomb (built 1570, early Akbar’s reign) is considered the precursor of the Taj Mahal and the first imposing Mughal structure, showcasing Persian influence and the Charbagh style.
- Akbar (1556–1605): Instituted extensive building programs, displaying a great passion for construction.
- Style: Known for blending Hindu and Persian forms, characterized by the use of red sandstone.
- Monuments: Constructed the Agra Fort (1565–1574) and the entirely new capital city of Fatehpur Sikri (1571–1585), featuring the majestic Buland Darwaza.
- Jahangir (1605–1627): Focused more on painting and garden design (like the Shalimar Bagh in Kashmir).
- Transition: Patronized buildings marking the transition to white marble and elaborate inlay work.
- Monument: The Tomb of I’timād-ud-Daulah (built by Nur Jahan for her father) is famed for its Pietra-dura work, demonstrating delicate elegance.
- Shah Jahan (1628–1658): The period of climax of Mughal architecture.
- Style: Emphasized perfect symmetry, delicate elegance, and extensive use of white marble. Distinctive features include multi-foil arches and bulbous domes with constricted necks.
- Monuments: The Taj Mahal (a World Heritage Site built 1632–1653), Red Fort in Delhi, and the Jama Masjid in Delhi.
- Aurangzeb (1658–1707): Imperial patronage diminished due to Aurangzeb’s lack of architectural passion.
- Monument: The Badshahi Mosque (1673) in Lahore is the largest imperial mosque commissioned by the Mughals.
- Decline: The style continued to decline post-Aurangzeb, exemplified by structures like the Tomb of Safdar Jang (1754), which showed a lower standard of workmanship.
III. Development of Mughal Painting
- Origin and Early Phase: Mughal painting is a style of miniature painting. It began tentatively under Humayun, who brought Persian masters Mir Sayyid Ali and Abd al-Samad Khan to India to establish a royal atelier. Under Akbar, this atelier (or Tasvir Khana) greatly expanded, fusing Persian techniques with indigenous Indian elements to create a unified style.
- Key Features and Techniques:
- Mughal paintings are small in size (“miniatures”).
- They emphasize realism and naturalism in figures and nature. Portraits are typically shown in profile.
- Themes are largely secular, depicting court life, portraits, hunting scenes, and battles.
- The art involved collaborative effort, with different artists handling outline, coloring, and portraiture.
- Technique involved applying tempera colors to specialized handmade paper, often finished with gold and burnished with agate stone to enhance shine.
- European techniques, such as foreshortening (perspective), were gradually incorporated.
- Zenith under Jahangir (1605–1627): Mughal painting reached its climax. Jahangir favored creating albums (muraqqas) over illuminated manuscripts. He personally encouraged artists like Ustad Mansur (famous for bird-life study) and Abul Hasan in promoting precise naturalistic work.
- Shah Jahan (1628–1658): The style became more formal and rigid, shifting from realism to idealization and opulence, with increasing use of gold embellishment.
- Decline: Emperor Aurangzeb’s religious conservatism led to the withdrawal of imperial patronage. This caused court painters to disperse to provincial centers like the Rajput courts, influencing regional styles.