Pre-Muslim Indian Society
Pre-Muslim Indian Society (Pre-13th Century)
I. Historical and Economic Context
- Periodization: The period immediately preceding the Delhi Sultanate (1206 AD) is often termed the Early Medieval period (circa AD 500–1200). The Ghorid conquest of Northern India in the late twelfth century is considered a turning point.
- Economic Structure: The overall economy during the Early Medieval period was characterized by a decline in commerce between coastal towns and inland villages.
- Economic decline, specifically the paucity of coins and urban decay, was noted. The shortage of gold coins is particularly evident from circa AD 650–1000.
- The establishment of the Delhi Sultanate (following the Ghorid conquest) resulted in economic changes, though D.D. Kosambi viewed these changes not as a fundamental departure but as an intensification of existing elements of Indian ‘feudalism’.
- Agrarian Relations (Feudal Characteristics):
- The prevailing socio-economic order on the eve of the Ghorid conquest featured a ruling class that was heavily ruralized, similar to the contemporary feudal aristocracy of Western Europe.
- The accelerated practice of land grants issued by ruling houses was a major historical development. This process led to the emergence of landed intermediaries, considered the hallmark of Indian feudal social formation.
- These land grants and the resulting subinfeudation caused an unequal distribution of land and power, creating new social and economic ranks.
- This feudal structure fostered a closed economy and generated local hierarchies and rights over land.
- The peasant population generally endured immobility and subjection to superior landholders. Forced labor (vishti, begara) likely compelled peasants to remain in their villages.
- Rural aristocratic figures such as khuts, muqaddams, and chaudharis were present in the agrarian structure.
- Around 1200 CE, the land-man ratio was favorable, meaning the population was considerably lower than in later periods, such as 1800.
- Trade and Craft Production:
- The decline of trade sometimes stopped the movement of artisans and traders.
- Trade and commerce became stagnant, localized, immobile, more hereditary, and more exclusive in the post-Gupta period.
- Merchants (vanij) sometimes became synonymous with the diminished vaishya varna. They were often transferred to guilds of beneficiaries of land grants.
II. Social Structure: Varna and Caste
- Caste Dominance: The caste system was the dominant category marking social differences, continuing to form the basis of society in the Early Medieval period.
- Heredity vs. Culture: The orthodox section emphasized heredity rather than culture or merit as the determinant of caste status.
- Proliferation of Jatis: The period saw a noticeable rise in the number of jatis (caste groups), explained by lawgivers as combinations and permutations within the traditional four-fold varna order.
- Varnas in Hierarchy:
- Brahmanas: Held the most exalted position in the hierarchical society. They were respected as literate persons and interpreters of the Vedic and Puranic traditions. They enjoyed privileges such as being exempt from taxes, receiving reverence by birth, and freedom from the death sentence.
- Kshatriyas (Rajputization): The process of “Rajputization” involved the gradual expansion of power by certain groups, often associated with the agrarian economy. Brahmanas frequently aided this process by creating genealogies linking ruling families (like the Gurjar-Pratiharas) to ancient kshatriya lines. The original kshatriya varna was diluted by the absorption of tribal and non-Hindu groups.
- Vaishyas: The position of the vaishya varna declined, approximating the position of the shudra. The legal term sudra increasingly came to encompass all non-brahmana groups. By the 8th century, contemporary writers believed there was hardly any difference between vaishyas and shudras.
- Shudras: Their primary duty was to serve the higher castes. They were still banned from reciting the Vedas but were permitted to listen to the recitation of the Puranas. They were also forbidden from participating in the ritual feasts of the upper castes.
- Untouchability:
- The practice and notion of untouchability reached an unprecedented peak during the early middle ages.
- Those engaged in manual crafts and “unclean” services were grouped as Antyajas (placed below the shudras, effectively the fifth varna). This group included various menial castes like the rajaka, charmmakara, nata, buruta, kaivartta, Meda, and Bhilla.
- Groups like the chandala, hadi, and dom were considered even lower than the Antyajas. Chandalas were traditionally segregated, with their settlements located outside the main society, a practice noted by the 5th century.
III. Status of Women
- Subordination and Duty: Women, in general, remained subordinate to men in all phases of life, whether as daughters, wives, or under their eldest son’s care as widows.
- Their primary societal duty was the production of progeny, especially male children. The birth of a daughter was often viewed as a symbol of dishonour.
- Marriage and Education: Early marriages for girls were widely practiced. While most poor women lacked education, women belonging to the higher strata often received education and training.
- Social Evils: Several social evils were prevalent:
- The practice of Sati (widow burning) was widely prevalent, though traveler Ibn Battuta mentioned that permission had to be sought from the Sultan for a woman to become a sati.
- The practice of Jauhar (mass self-immolation) was common among the Rajputs.
- The custom of purdah (seclusion of women) was practiced among the upper classes, confining them to the inner sanctum or antahpura.
- Property Rights: Commentators recognized the widow’s right to dispose of the property of a son-less husband, provided the property was not jointly held.
Analogy for Social Transformation: The transition from the ancient/early historical phase to the society found just before the Muslim conquest can be seen metaphorically as an intricate, highly centralized machine (the centralized early state) falling into disrepair. Instead of one large factory floor, the parts break down into numerous smaller workshops (regional kingdoms and decentralized power centers). While new social mechanisms (like Rajputization and the proliferation of jatis) are introduced, the overall economic activity diminishes and locks workers into local, rigid roles (immobile peasantry and localized trade), intensifying the existing hierarchies rather than inventing entirely new ones. This created a fragmented yet rigidly structured society defined by local power and inherited status.