Society-Structure and Growth in the Medieval Period

The medieval period in India witnessed significant developments in social structure, economic organization, and demographic patterns, though fundamental elements like the caste system remained dominant.

I. Population and Urban Growth

Population Estimates: The total population of India is estimated to have been between 140 and 150 million by the end of the 16th century, growing slowly to approximately 200 million by the end of the 18th century.
Urbanization Rate: There was a high urban ratio in Mughal India, with about 15 percent of the total population residing in towns, a proportion not surpassed until the mid-20th century.
Growth of Cities: Town life and the growth of urban centers increased rapidly during the 16th and 17th centuries, following the improved communications and centralized rule under the Mughals.
Major Urban Centers (17th Century):
- Agra was considered the largest city, with an estimated population of 500,000 to 600,000 when the Emperor was present.
- Lahore was described as one of the largest cities in the world by the early 17th century.
- Ahmedabad was estimated to be larger than London and its suburbs.
Town Function: Urban centers served administrative roles (Agra, Delhi), commercial and manufacturing purposes (Patna, Ahmedabad), or functioned as pilgrimage sites (Banaras).

II. Rural Society and Agrarian Structure

Rural Demographics: Roughly 85 percent of India’s population lived in rural areas during the 16th and 17th centuries.
Social Stratification: Rural society was highly stratified based on resident status, caste, and position as office holders.
Peasant Categories:
- Khud-kasht (Privileged Section): Resident owner-cultivators who owned land, cultivated it with family/hired labor, paid land revenue at a concessional rate, and held a high social status.
- Muzarian/Raiyatis (General Section): The general category of cultivators who were either owners or tenants.
- Pahis/Pai-kasht (Outsiders): Peasants who came from outside the village to cultivate surplus land, often given temporary concessional land grants (pattas). Peasants were free to move, but officials sometimes used force to compel cultivators to stay.
Revenue Burden and Inequality: The land revenue was heavy, often ranging from one-third to half of the produce. Inequality was prominent; richer peasants and money-lenders (mahajans) profited by lending money at interest or foreclosing on the lands of poor peasants during famines.

III. The Ruling Classes and Nobility

Nobility Composition (Mughal): The Mughal nobility was a privileged class, initially dominated by Iranis and Turanis. Akbar gradually incorporated large numbers of Rajputs into the service. The proportion of Hindus in the nobility continued to rise, reaching about one-third of the nobility under Aurangzeb (including Marathas).
Nobility Lifestyle: Nobles received extremely high salaries and lived extravagantly, known for “spending not hoarding”. They built large mansions, maintained massive households, and spent heavily on fine clothing, imported fruits, and luxury items.
Mansabdari System: This was the ranking system for officers, divided into zat (personal status/salary) and sawar (cavalry contingent obligation). Mansabdars were primarily compensated through jagirs (territorial revenue assignments). The system faced a crisis under Aurangzeb due to increasing numbers of nobles and difficulty securing viable jagirs and collecting actual revenue, severely straining the imperial structure.
Zamindars: This class stood above the peasantry, possessing hereditary rights (malikana) to collect revenue (sometimes claiming up to 25% share) and commanding armed forces. The Mughal government aimed to convert these local power holders into administrative agents while limiting their private revenue extractions.

IV. Commercial Classes, Industry, and Trade

Trade Networks: Internal and foreign trade flourished, facilitated by good roads (sarais built every two kos). Movement of goods was financed through hundis (bills of exchange) managed by sarrafs (shroffs), who functioned as private bankers.
Merchants: India had a vast class of rich traders and merchants. These traders, like Virji Vohra of Surat or the Bohras, had extensive commercial dealings internationally and domestically. India maintained a favorable trade balance, importing gold and silver, and exporting textiles and cash crops.
Key Industries:
- Textile Manufacturing was the largest industry, producing cotton cloth (calicos, muslins) and silk.
- Shipbuilding (especially in Bengal and Gujarat).
- Metallurgy (guns, armor, steel).
Labor: Artisans often worked on a domestic basis (at home) and were often controlled by merchants through the dadni (putting out) system. Skilled laborers and specialized artisans had a low social status and received low wages.

V. Social Hierarchy, Caste, and Women

Caste System: The caste system continued to be the fundamental basis of society, though a degree of social mobility existed. The rise of the Rajput and Maratha communities into the nobility demonstrates the changing varna status based on political and economic power.
Interactions: The Bhakti and Sufi movements fostered mutual understanding and tolerance, emphasizing faith and devotion over formal rituals or strict caste lines, though orthodox elements opposed this trend.
Status of Women: The general position of women worsened; purdah (seclusion) spread, particularly among upper classes. Practices such as sati (widow burning) continued, often encouraged by political allies like the Rajputs, though Mughal rulers tried to discourage forced sati.
Women in Economy: Women of the common strata worked extensively in agricultural and manufacturing sectors (especially spinning, which was solely practiced by women). They generally received lower wages than men, reflecting the prevailing gender discrimination. Upper-class women had increased property rights but were constrained by the patriarchal family system.