1. How Major Decisions are Taken?

A government order is the end result of a long chain of events. Let’s look at the Office Memorandum No. 36012/31/90-Est (SCT).

The Decision Makers

• President: Head of the State & highest formal authority.
• Prime Minister: Head of the Government; actually exercises all powers.
• Parliament: Consists of President + 2 Houses (Lok Sabha & Rajya Sabha).

Case Study: Mandal Commission

मंडल आयोग (Mandal Commission) की कहानी:

• Appointed in 1979 under B.P. Mandal.
• Task: Identify socially & educationally backward classes (SEBC).
• Recommendation: 27% Government jobs should be reserved for SEBC.
• Implementation:
  1. Janata Dal promised it in 1989 elections.
  2. V.P. Singh (PM) informed Parliament.
  3. Department of Personnel & Training signed the order on 13 Aug 1990.

2. Why do we need Institutions?

Governing a country involves various tasks like security, education, health, and tax collection. संस्थानों की ज़रूरत क्यों है?

• They provide a systematic way to take decisions.
• They involve many people, which prevents hasty or bad decisions.
• They create a clear division of labor (Legislature, Executive, Judiciary).

Parliament (संसद)

In India, Parliament consists of the President and two houses:

• Lok Sabha: House of the People. Directly elected. (निचला सदन – ज़्यादा शक्तिशाली)
• Rajya Sabha: Council of States. Represents state interests. (ऊपरी सदन – स्थायी सदन)

Who is more powerful?

Lok Sabha is more powerful because:

• In a joint session, LS view prevails due to larger numbers.
• Money Bills can only be introduced in LS. RS can only delay for 14 days.
• LS controls the Council of Ministers (No-Confidence Motion).

3. Political & Permanent Executive

Executive refers to the group of people responsible for implementing laws. कार्यपालिका

Prime Minister & Council of Ministers

The PM is the most powerful person in the government.

• Cabinet Ministers: Top-level leaders (usually 20). Inner circle.
• Ministers of State (Ind. Charge): Smaller ministries.
• Ministers of State: Attached to Cabinet ministers to assist them.

Powers of the PM

1. Chairs Cabinet meetings.
2. Coordinates work of different departments.
3. Can dismiss any minister.
4. If PM quits, the entire ministry quits.

4. The President (राष्ट्रपति)

While the PM is the Head of Government, the President is the Head of the State.

• She is not directly elected by the people. Elected by MPs and MLAs.
• Her role is mainly Ceremonial.
• All major appointments (CJI, Governors, Election Commissioners) are made in her name.
• All international treaties are made in her name.

President’s Discretionary Power

When no party gets a majority in Lok Sabha, the President uses her discretion to appoint the PM whom she thinks can prove a majority.

How laws are passed?

A bill passed by Parliament becomes a law only after it receives the President’s Assent. She can send it back once for reconsideration, but if it is passed again, she MUST sign it.

5. The Judiciary (न्यायपालिका)

An independent & powerful judiciary is essential for democracy. एक स्वतंत्र न्यायपालिका लोकतंत्र के लिए ज़रूरी है।

Integrated Judiciary

India has an integrated judiciary, meaning the Supreme Court (SC) controls judicial administration in the whole country.

• Supreme Court: Decisions are binding on all other courts.
• High Courts: At the state level.
• District Courts: At the local level.

Independence of Judiciary

Judges are appointed by the President on the advice of the PM and in consultation with the Chief Justice. Once appointed, it is impossible to remove a judge unless an Impeachment motion is passed by 2/3rd majority in BOTH houses.

Powers of SC / High Courts

1. Judicial Review: To determine the constitutional validity of any law.
2. Guardian of Fundamental Rights: Citizens can approach courts if rights are violated.
3. Public Interest Litigation (PIL): Anyone can file a case for public interest.