Construction of Ancient Indian History

Construction of Ancient Indian History

Notes on the Construction of Ancient Indian History

I. Material Remains (Archaeology)

Definition: Archaeology is the science that systematically excavates old mounds in successive layers to form an idea of the material life of the people.
Physical Remains: Ancient Indians left many material remains, including stone temples in South India and brick monasteries in Eastern India. Most remains are buried in scattered mounds.
Excavation Methods:
- Vertical Digging: Provides a good chronological sequence of material culture.
- Horizontal Digging: Rarely done due to high cost; thus, excavations often give an incomplete picture of material life.
Preservation and Environment:
- Antiquities are better preserved in the dry climates of western Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, and northwestern India.
- In moist, humid, and deltaic areas (like the middle Gangetic basin), iron implements corrode, and mud structures are hard to detect; large-scale remains often consist only of burnt brick or stone structures.
- Excavations have revealed cities established around 2500 B.C. in northwestern India and the material culture developed in the Gangetic basin.
Insights from Remains: Provide knowledge on settlement layout, pottery used, house forms, types of cereals consumed, and tools and implements handled.
Megaliths: Structures found mainly in South India where the dead were buried along with their tools, weapons, pottery, and other belongings, encircled by large stones. These reveal details of life in the Deccan from the Iron Age onward.
Scientific Analysis:
- Dating: Dates are fixed using the radio-carbon method.
- Climate/Agriculture: Pollen analysis of plant residues helps determine the history of climate and vegetation, suggesting agriculture in Rajasthan and Kashmir dates back to 6000 B.C..
- Technology: Analysis of metal artifacts identifies sources of metals and tracks the stages of metal technology development.
- Domestication: Examination of animal bones shows whether animals were domesticated and how they were utilized.

II. Coins (Numismatics)

Definition: The study of coins is called numismatics.
Materials and Manufacture: Ancient coins were made of metal (copper, silver, gold, or lead). Coin molds (mostly belonging to the Kushan period, the first three Christian centuries) have been found, though their use largely disappeared in the post-Gupta period. Paper currency was not used until the fourteenth century.
Hoards and Preservation: Ancient people deposited money in hoards (earthenware/brass vessels), some containing foreign coins (e.g., Roman empire). Coins are preserved in museums in India (Calcutta, Patna, etc.) and abroad (Nepal, Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Britain).
Historical Significance:
- Early coins contained only symbols; later coins included the names of kings, gods, or dates.
- The location where coins are found indicates the region of their circulation, helping to reconstruct the history of dynasties like the Indo-Greeks (2nd and 1st centuries B.C.).
- Coins issued by guilds reflect the importance of crafts and commerce.
- The largest number of coins are found from post-Maurya times. The Guptas issued the largest quantity of gold coins, indicating flourishing trade and commerce during the post-Maurya and Gupta periods.
- The scarcity of coins from the post-Gupta period suggests a decline in trade at that time.
- Religious symbols and legends on coins shed light on the art and religion of the period.

III. Inscriptions (Epigraphy/Palaeography)

Definitions: The study of inscriptions is epigraphy. The study of the writing used in old records is palaeography.
Mediums: Inscriptions were carved on various materials: seals, stone pillars, rocks, copper plates, temple walls, bricks, and images.
- The earliest inscriptions were on stone.
- Copper plates were used beginning in the early centuries of the Christian era, mostly for land grants.
- Stone continued to be widely used in South India, with many permanent records found on temple walls.
Scripts and Languages:
- Harappan inscriptions (c. 2500 B.C.) use a pictographic script and are yet to be deciphered.
- The oldest deciphered inscriptions are those of Asoka (3rd century B.C.).
- Asoka’s inscriptions were mainly engraved in the Brahmi script (written left to right).
- Some Asokan inscriptions used the Kharosthi script (written right to left) in the northwestern part of the country.
- Greek and Aramaic scripts were used for Asokan inscriptions in Afghanistan.
- Brahmi remained the primary script until the end of Gupta times.
- Prakrit was the earliest epigraphic language (3rd century B.C.) and continued to be used.
- Sanskrit became widespread as an epigraphic medium in the fourth and fifth centuries A.D..
- Regional languages began to be used for compositions in the ninth and tenth centuries.
Decipherment: Asokan inscriptions were first successfully deciphered by James Prinsep in 1837.
Categories of Inscriptions:
- Royal Orders: Conveying decisions on social, religious, and administrative matters (e.g., Asokan inscriptions).
- Votive Records: Marking devotion by followers of various religions (Buddhism, Jainism, etc.), often involving pillars or images.
- Eulogies (Prashastis): Praising the achievements of kings and conquerors (e.g., the Allahabad inscription of Samudragupta).
- Donative Records: Documenting gifts (money, cattle, land) given, usually for religious purposes, by kings, artisans, and merchants.
- Land Grants (on copper plates): Crucial for studying land administration and system, recording grants of land, revenues, and villages to religious figures or officials.

IV. Literary Sources

Manuscript Materials: The oldest manuscripts are from Central Asia (not older than 4th century A.D.) and were written on birch bark, palm leaves, sheep leather, and wooden tablets.
Religious Literature (Hindu):
- Vedas: Rig Veda (c. 1500–1000 B.C.) contains prayers. Later Vedic texts (c. 1000–500 B.C.) include rituals, magic, and myths. Upanishads contain philosophical speculations. Vedic texts often contain interpolations.
- Epics and Puranas: Finally compiled around A.D. 400.
  - Mahabharata: Older epic, reflecting history from the 10th century B.C. to the 4th century A.D.. Originally Jaya Samhita (8800 verses), expanded to Bharata (24,000 verses), and finally to the Mahabharata (100,000 verses). Contains narrative, descriptive, and didactic sections reflecting different historical periods.
  - Ramayana: Composed later than the Mahabharata, increasing from 12,000 to 24,000 verses, and also containing didactic portions.
Post-Vedic Ritual Literature (c. 600–300 B.C.):
- Srautasutras: Define large public sacrifices and royal ceremonies.
- Grihyasutras: Describe domestic rituals (birth, marriage, funerals, etc.).
- Sulvasutras: Detail measurements for sacrificial altars, marking the origin of geometry and mathematics.
Jain and Buddhist Literature: Refer to historical persons and events.
- Buddhist texts were written in the Pali language (spoken in Magadha/South Bihar) and were compiled in Sri Lanka in the 2nd century B.C..
- Jatakas (folk tales of Buddha’s previous births) offer insight into social and economic conditions from the 5th to the 2nd century B.C..
- Jaina texts (in Prakrit) were compiled in Valabhi (Gujarat) in the 6th century A.D. and aid in reconstructing political history in eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar during Mahavira’s era, often referencing trade.
Secular Literature:
- Dharmasastras: Include Dharmasutras (500–200 B.C.) and principal Smritis (1st–6th centuries A.D.). These prescribe duties for varnas, kings, property inheritance, and punishments.
- Arthasastra (Kautilya): Though finalized in the early Christian era, its early parts (Books II and III) reflect Mauryan society and economy. It is a rich source for polity and economy.
- Works of Kalidasa, Bhasa, and Banabhatta: Reflect social and cultural conditions of their times (e.g., Kalidasa’s works like Abhijnanasakuntalam reflect the Gupta age).
- Sangam Literature (Tamil): Compiled over centuries (first four Christian centuries, finalized by 6th century). Crucial source for social, economic, and political life in deltaic Tamil Nadu, corroborated by foreign accounts.

V. Foreign Accounts

Foreign visitors (Greek, Roman, Chinese) left accounts useful for reconstructing ancient Indian history.
Greek Accounts: Essential for understanding events like Alexander’s invasion, which lacks indigenous documentation.
- Identification of Sandrokottas (mentioned by Greeks) with Chandragupta Maurya (accession date fixed at 322 B.C.) provides the “sheet-anchor in ancient Indian chronology”.
- Megasthenes’ Indika (preserved in fragments) informs about Mauryan administration, social classes, and economy, although it contains exaggerations.
- Greek and Roman accounts of the 1st and 2nd centuries A.D. list Indian ports and trade items with the Roman empire. These include:
  - The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea (A.D. 80–115).
  - Ptolemy’s Geography (c. A.D. 150).
  - Pliny’s Naturalis Historia (1st century A.D., in Latin), detailing trade with Italy.
Chinese Accounts:
- Fa-hsien (early 5th century A.D.): Describes social, religious, and economic conditions during the Gupta age.
- Hsuan Tsang (7th century A.D.): Provides a similar account of India during the age of Harsha.

VI. Historical Sense

Ancient Indians are sometimes criticized for lacking historical sense because they did not write history in modern or Greek styles.
Evidence of Historical Sense:
- Puranas: Contain dynastic history up to the beginning of the Gupta rule. They reflect the idea of change (the essence of history) through the cycles of the four ages (krita, treta, dvapara, kali).
- Inscriptions: Demonstrate an understanding of time by specifying event years during a king’s reign. They mark time using established eras, such as:
  - Vikrama Samvat (58 B.C.).
  - Saka Samvat (A.D. 78).
  - Gupta era (A.D. 319).
- Biographical Writings (Charitas): Show considerable historical sense.
  - Harshacharita by Banabhatta (7th century): A semi-biographical work detailing the early career of Harshavardhana and offering insights into the social/religious life of his age.
  - Rajatarangini (The Stream of Kings) by Kalhana (12th century): Considered the best example of early historical writing, as it is a string of biographies of Kashmir kings that possesses several traits of history as it is understood today.

Here are the answers to your questions, based on the provided text excerpts:

1. Indicate the sources of ancient Indian history

The sources for the construction of ancient Indian history can be categorized into the following areas:

I. Material Remains (Archaeology)

Physical Structures: These include stone temples (especially in South India) and brick monasteries (in Eastern India). Most remains are buried in mounds across the country.
Excavated Artifacts: These provide knowledge of settlement layouts, pottery used, house forms, cereals consumed, and tools/implements handled.
Megaliths: Structures mainly found in South India, encircling the graves where the dead were buried along with their belongings, which reveal details of life in the Deccan from the Iron Age onwards.
Scientific Dating/Analysis: Methods like the radio-carbon method, pollen-analysis (for climate/vegetation), and analysis of metal artifacts and animal bones are used.

II. Coins (Numismatics)

Currency: Ancient coins were made of metal (copper, silver, gold, or lead).
Hoards: Money was deposited in hoards, often in earthenware or brass vessels, sometimes containing foreign coins (e.g., from the Roman empire).
Coin Molds: Molds made of burnt clay, mostly belonging to the Kushan period, have been found.
Catalogs: Coins of major dynasties have been catalogued and published (e.g., those in the Indian Museum at Calcutta and the British Museum in London).

III. Inscriptions (Epigraphy/Palaeography)

Mediums: Inscriptions were carved on seals, stone pillars, rocks, copper plates, temple walls, bricks, and images. The earliest were on stone.
Types: Inscriptions include royal orders (e.g., Asokan inscriptions), votive records, eulogies (e.g., the Allahabad inscription of Samudragupta), and donative records (including land grants on copper plates).
Deciphered Records: The oldest deciphered inscriptions were issued by Asoka in the third century B.C..

IV. Literary Sources

Religious Literature (Hindu): This includes the Vedas (Rig Veda, Yajur Veda, Atharva Veda), Brahmanas, and Upanishads (philosophical speculations).
Epics and Puranas: The Mahabharata and Ramayana, and the major Puranas, were finally compiled around A.D. 400. The Puranas provide dynastic history up to the beginning of the Gupta rule.
Post-Vedic Ritual Literature: This includes the Srautasutras (public sacrifices) and Grihyasutras (domestic rituals), and the Sulvasutras (measurements for altars).
Jain and Buddhist Literature: Early Buddhist texts (in Pali), such as the Jatakas (folk tales of Buddha’s previous births), shed light on social and economic conditions. Jaina texts (in Prakrit) help reconstruct political history in eastern UP and Bihar.
Secular Literature:
- Law-books: Dharmasutras and Smritis (compiled as Dharmasastras).
- Arthasastra of Kautilya: Provides rich material for the study of ancient Indian polity and economy.
- Classical Works: Writings by Bhasa, Kalidasa (e.g., Abhijnanasakuntalam), and Banabhatta, which mirror the social and cultural conditions of their times.
Tamil Texts: The Sangam literature provides information on social, economic, and political life in deltaic Tamil Nadu during the early Christian centuries.

V. Foreign Accounts

Accounts left by Greek, Roman, and Chinese visitors (e.g., Megasthenes, Fa-hsien, Hsuan Tsang).

2. What is meant by archaeology?

The science which enables historians to dig the old mounds in a systematic manner, in successive layers, and to form an idea of the material life of the people is called archaeology.

Archaeology provides knowledge about the material culture of ancient people, including:

The layout of their settlements.
The type of pottery they used.
The form of houses they dwelt in.
The kind of cereals they used as food.
The type of tools and implements they handled.

3. Why are the foreign accounts of India useful?

Foreign accounts are valuable because they supplement indigenous literature and provide crucial information that is sometimes missing from Indian sources.

Key uses include:

Reconstructing Political Events: They are essential for reconstructing events, such as Alexander’s invasion, which finds no mention in Indian sources.
Providing Chronological Anchors: The identification of “Sandrokottas” (mentioned by Greek visitors) with Chandragupta Maurya fixed the date of his accession at 322 B.C., which serves as the sheet-anchor in ancient Indian chronology.
Detailing Administration and Society: Fragments of Megasthenes’ Indika furnish valuable information about the system of Mauryan administration, social classes, and economic activities, despite containing some exaggerations.
Documenting Trade and Geography: Greek and Roman accounts of the first and second centuries A.D. list Indian ports and enumerate trade items between India and the Roman empire. Texts like The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea and Ptolemy’s Geography provide data for ancient geography and commerce. Pliny’s Naturalis Historia details trade with Italy.
Describing Specific Eras: Chinese travelers, such as Fa-hsien (early 5th century A.D.), describe the social, religious, and economic conditions during the age of the Guptas, and Hsuan Tsang (7th century A.D.) gives a similar account for the age of Harsha.

4. Mention the languages which were in use in ancient India.

Several languages were in use, particularly documented through literature and inscriptions:

I. Languages of Inscriptions and Records:

Prakrit: This was the earliest epigraphic language, used in the third century B.C.. It was also the language in which the earliest inscriptions were written. It continued to be employed even after other languages gained prominence. The Jaina texts were written in Prakrit.
Sanskrit: It was adopted as an epigraphic medium in the second century A.D. and became widespread in the fourth and fifth centuries. It was also used for land grant inscriptions.
Tamil and Telugu: These regional languages were used for land grant inscriptions.
Regional Languages: Compositions in regional languages began to appear in inscriptions in the ninth and tenth centuries.

II. Languages of Scripts and Foreign Usage:

Brahmi: The script used for most of Asoka’s inscriptions, written from left to right. It remained the main script until the end of Gupta times.
Kharosthi: Used for some Asokan inscriptions in the north-western part of the country, written from right to left.
Greek and Aramaic: These scripts were used for Asokan inscriptions found in Afghanistan.

III. Languages of Literary Works:

Vedic Sanskrit: The language of the Vedas and later Vedic texts.
Pali: The language spoken in Magadha (South Bihar) in which the earliest Buddhist texts were written.
Tamil: The language of the early Tamil texts found in the corpus of the Sangam literature.

5. “Early Indians lacked historical sense.” Discuss.

The charge that ancient Indians lacked historical sense is often leveled because they did not write history in the manner that is done now, nor did they follow the style of the Greeks.

However, the sources indicate that early Indians did possess a historical sense, although it manifested in different forms:

I. Evidence in Puranas (Idea of Change and Dynastic History):

The Puranas provide dynastic history up to the beginning of the Gupta rule.
The authors of the Puranas were aware of the idea of change, which is considered the essence of history.
The Puranas speak of the cycles of the four ages (krita, treta, dvapara, and kali), with each succeeding age depicted as worse than the preceding, reflecting the degeneration of moral values and social institutions.
The Puranas, along with biographical works, also discuss the causes and effects of an event.

II. Evidence in Inscriptions (Idea of Time):

Inscriptions demonstrate an understanding of time, which is a vital element in history.
They specify the years during a king’s reign in which important events took place.
The use of established eras, such as the Vikrama Samvat (58 B.C.), the Saka Samvat (A.D. 78), and the Gupta era (A.D. 319), shows that events were recorded in a chronological context.
Inscriptions record events in the context of both time and place.

III. Evidence in Biographical Writings (Charitas):

Indians displayed considerable historical sense in biographical writings.
Harshacharita by Banabhatta (7th century) is a semi-biographical work detailing the early career of Harshavardhana and giving an excellent idea of court life and the social/religious life of his age.
The best example of early historical writing is the Rajatarangini (The Stream of Kings) by Kalhana (12th century), which is a string of biographies of the kings of Kashmir and is considered the first work to possess several traits of history as it is understood today.
Other biographies include Sandhyakara Nandi’s Ramacharita and Bilhana’s Vikramankadevacharita.